THE RESEARCH PROBLEM.Variables.DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES.RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

THE SOURCES OF PROBLEM

Three important sources for research problem are experience, deduction from theory, and related literature.
Among the most fruitful sources for beginning researchers are their own experiences as educational practitioners.

Deduction from theory

The deduction that the researcher can make from various educational and behavioral theories with which he or she familiar provide and excellent source of problems. From a theory of researcher can generate hypotheses stating the expected findings in a particular practical situation. Theory not only provides many ideas for research problems but also ties idea into existing knowledge.

Related literature

There is several ways in which the review of previous research can help in formulating new research problems.

1. Review of previous help people formulated research question that are the next logical step from previous investigation.

2. Review of previous may stimulate a research to see whether the procedures employed can be adapted to solving other problems, or whether a similar study could be conducted in a different field or subject area or groups of subjects.

3. Review previous research may suggest the desirability of replication to confirm previous finding.

4. Reviewing research studies previously undertaken may raise the question of the applicability of their findings to other cultures.

5. Review previous research may result in detecting inconsistencies or in dissatisfaction with the conceptualization, methodology, measuring instrument and statistical analysis used.





EVALUATING THE PROBLEM

· Ideally, the problem should be one whose solution will contribute to the body of organized knowledge in education.

· The problem must be researchable.

· The problem should be one that will lead to new problems and so to further research.

· The problem must be suitable for the particular.

· The problem should be ethically appropriate.


The problem in quantitative research

1. it clarifies exactly what is to be investigated

2. The problem asks a relationship between to or more variables stated in the form of a question or implied question.

3. The problem should be stated in such a way that research into the question is possible.


IDENTIFYING POPULATION AND VARIABLES

A good strategy for shaping a felt problem or a vague nation of what you want to investigate into a researchable problem is to think in term of population and variable. The population is below average readers. Reading ability is not variable in this question, because all the children being considered have been diagnosed as below average reader.

A comparison of take-home versus in class exams

This study was an determine whether the take-home test was as good a vehicle or a better a one for learning than the traditional in class tests. The result of this experiment are important because instructors are increasingly deleting the in class tests.

THE PROBLEM IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

A qualitative problem is a statement or question that indicates the general purpose of the study. Formulation of a qualitative problem begins with the identification of a general topic or an area you want to know more about this general topic interest is sometimes referred to by qualitative research as the focus in inquiry.

Sources of qualitative problems

Qualitative can look to their personal experiences and interest, to the personal experiences and interests, to the professional’s literature, or to current social issues and real word concerns to find a potential problem. One research have selected the initial focus inquiry, they need to identify exactly what they want to know about that topic. The focus inquiry is thus narrowed to the aspect of the phenomenon that will be explored in the research study.



Criteria for a qualitative problem

The following criteria guide the selection and statement of qualitative problems:

· The problem should be stated clearly at last in a general way

· It should be a problem that has some conceptual theoretical framework. The problem should have some significance in relation to educational theory or to practice.

· Investigation of the problem should be feasible. Will the research have access to a group of people or to a site? Can he or she complete the study in a reasonable time? Are financial resources adequate?

· The problem should be one in which the researcher has a great deal of interests and experience.

Variables

Defining Variables

The purpose of a research study is to discover unknown qualities of persons or things. To measure these qualities we define variables. In a study there are several classes of variables.

1. Independent (or experimental) variable: There are two types of independent variables: Active and attribute. If the independent variable is an active variable then we manipulate the values of the variable to study its affect on another variable. In the above example, we alter anxiety level to see if responsiveness to pain reduction medication is enhanced. Anxiety level is the active independent variable. An attribute variable is a variable where we do not alter the variable during the study. For example, we might want to study the effect of age on weight. We cannot change a person's age, but we can study people of different ages and weights.

2. Dependent variable (or Criterion measure): This is the variable that is affected by the independent variable. Responsiveness to pain reduction medication is the dependent variable in the above example. The dependent variable is dependent on the independent variable. Another example: If I praise you, you will probably feel good, but if I am critical of you, you will probably feel angry. My response to you is the independent variable, and your response to me is the dependent variable, because what I say influences how you respond.

3. Control variable: A control variable is a variable that effects the dependent variable. When we "control a variable" we wish to balance its effect across subjects and groups so that we can ignore it, and just study the relationship between the independent and the dependent variables. You control for a variable by holding it constant, e.g., keep humidity the same, and vary temperature, to study comfort levels.

4. Extraneous variable: This is a variable that probably does influence the relationship between the independent and dependent variables, but it is one that we do not control or manipulate. For example, barometric pressure may effect pain thresholds in some clients but we do not know how this operates or how to control for it. Thus, we note that this variable might effect our results, and then ignore it. Often research studies do not find evidence to support the hypotheses because of unnoticed extraneous variables that influenced the results. Extraneous variables which influence the study in a negative manner are often called confounding variables.

Variables must be defined in terms of measurable behaviors. The operational definition of a variable describes the variable. There are two ways by which we can operationally define a variable; by how it is measured and by how it is used to classify subjects. Later we will use specialized terms for how variables are defined (continuous or categorical) and the nature of the data obtained (nominal, ordinal, or interval). These terms are discussed in Chapters 6 and 7.

The first way of defining a variable is to describe how we measure it. We cannot just say we will "reduce anxiety." We must define how anxiety will be measured and just what is a reduction in anxiety. In our example we define anxiety as a change in galvanic skin response generated by the discussion of potentially emotional content (i.e., one's pending death). Another example would be range of motion. In general range of motion deals with the amount of mobility one has of their limbs. Actually, we define ROM as the movement of a specific limb through so many degrees as measured by a goniometer with the limb held in a specific way and moved in a prescribed arc.

The second way of defining a variable is to describe how you have classified subjects (people) into groups or categories. This is important since two researchers could be studying the same variable but if they each classify their subjects differently they may get different results. For example, suppose we wanted to study the income levels of single adults. If one researcher classified his single adult subjects into these three categories (17 through 22, 23 through 27, and 28 through 33), he would get different results than this second researcher who used three different categories (20 through 40, 41 through 60, and 61 and over). The first researcher is interested in young adults and the second in all ages. Thus, without operational definitions we could think that they both were studying the same variable.

When we use behavioral (operational) definitions for variables, we define exactly what we are studying and enable others to understand our work. This is called operationalism.

Formulating Hypotheses

Once the research question has been stated, the next step is to define testable hypotheses. Usually a research question is a broad statement, that is not directly measurable by a research study. The research question needs to be broken down into smaller units, called hypotheses, that can be studied. A hypothesis is a statement that expresses the probable relationship between variables.

DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

Data-collection techniques allow us to systematically collect information about our objects of study (people, objects, phenomena) and about the settings in which they occur.

In the collection of data we have to be systematic. If data are collected haphazardly, it will be difficult to answer our research questions in a conclusive way.

Various data collection techniques can be used such as:

• Using available information
• Observing
• Interviewing (face-to-face)
• Administering written questionnaires
• Focus group discussions
• Projective techniques, mapping, scaling

·         Data collection tools

1. Using available information

Usually there is a large amount of data that has already been collected by others, although it may not necessarily have been analysed or published.

2. Observing

OBSERVATION is a technique that involves systematically selecting, watching and recording behaviour and characteristics of living beings, objects or phenomena.

3. Interviewing

An INTERVIEW is a data-collection technique that involves oral questioning of respondents, either individually or as a group.

4. Administering written questionnaires

A WRITTEN QUESTIONNAIRE (also referred to as self-administered questionnaire) is a data collection tool in which written questions are presented that are to be answered by the respondents in written form.

5. Focus group discussions (FGD)

A focus group discussion allows a group of 8 - 12 informants to freely discuss a certain subject with the guidance of a facilitator or reporter.

6. Projective techniques

When a researcher uses projective techniques, (s)he asks an informant to react to some kind of visual or verbal stimulus.

7. Mapping and scaling

Mapping is a valuable technique for visually displaying relationships and resources.

Scaling is a technique that allows researchers through their respondents to categorise certain variables that they would not be able to rank themselves

8. Data collection tools

Instrument used to collect information for use in performance assessment, self-evaluation and external evaluation. Examples are mail, telephone, in-person and web-based surveys, direct or participatory observation, interviews, focus groups, expert opinion, case studies, literature search, and content analysis of internal and external records. The data collection tools must be strong enough to support the findings of the evaluation.

.

Table 10A.1: Data collection techniques and tools

RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Ø Observation checklist/Sheet

An observation checklist is a list of things that an observer is going to look at when observing a class. This list may have been prepared by the observer or the teacher or both. Observation checklists not only give an observer a structure and framework for an observation but also serve as a contract of understanding with the teacher, who may as a result be more comfortable, and will get specific feedback on aspects of the class.

Ø Interview guide

Designing a good questionnaire always takes several drafts. In the first draft we should concentrate on the content. In the second, we should look critically at the formulation and sequencing of the questions. Then we should scrutinise the format of the questionnaire. Finally we should do a test-run to check whether the questionnaire gives us the information we require and whether interviewers as well as respondents feel at ease with it. Usually the questionnaire will need some further adaptation before we can use it for actual data collection.